Salve/Ave everyone
After hours of research & far too much movie and tv watching I have gained an insight into what I think makes a Patrician and hopefully sources will back me on this.
So what makes a Patrician?
Simply answer is wealth power & status. They were the aristocracy of the day, before the Empire they were the royal family. They were noble class made up of thirty one clans of Rome and were very exlusive, if you think of the glass ceiling that is well known in modern day society, you can only get there if you know where the way in is. Most didn't in some ways modern day society & nobility has not changed that much. Our concern here is only for Ancient Roman society however and therefore only used as an example here.
It was not about what you knew it was who you knew, think about the scene in Titanic where they all belittle the young man from Steerage and indeed the woman who had new wealth, we are talking very old wealth and probably not willing to share.
The Senate had the final vote on anything decided and of course the Senate was made of up of those from Patrician families. It is important to note that in the late Republic, some of these families were getting by using the reputation of their names, as they were fast losing their financial monopoly. The late Republic was the era of the plebian after all. As the balance of wealth shifted from patrician hands to plebian hands, coruption, greed and probably murder were a normal state of affairs, as noble families fought to stay in wealth and power.
In this era of the late republic - both Patricians and Equites had to be worth at least 400,000 sesterces to qualify for their respective class. Only later, during the reign of Augustus was the requirement for Patricians raised to 1,000,000 sesterces.
Soooo playing a Patrician where do you start?
First thing is to decide your background story & work from there. If you are joining an existing family on the sim then have a good chat with those in your family & find out who you are in relation to the others.
There is of course no set way to playing your Patrician character but to portray a realistic performance it is important to do some research and get a feel for the time period you are playing.
I will strongly recommend for this class Rome the series as I feel it gives a more subtle approach than the series Sparticus which I feel has a more realistic feel for the Gladiators & slaves classes. I think I found the idea of Roman nobles swearing a lot a little far fetched when to even raise your voice would be seen as dumbing down to the lower classes. However I did also watch a study of women in one of the series of Sparticus and found that very informative too. The costumes & wigs e.t.c. look more authentic to the period in Rome and the manner of the ladies also. Either is good though and search out other films & TV also that is in keeping with the period.
Be realistic if you like to use slang words and not a lot of flowery classical language then perhaps Patrician is not the class for you to role play. If you like to swear like a trooper in Role play be a Pleb class character. This does not mean you do not get to vent your fury in a role play it mean you vent when it is necessary. Pop culture has in some ways diluted the integrity of this class and made it seem that they really did behave in a vulgar way I honestly think this is TV only.
The romans had a terrible reputation for excesses and debauchery. However do not forget that they are a millitaristic society. Excesses like intoxication and promiscuity were frowned upon by society as they reflected a lack of self control. This is especially true for the patrician class and particularly for the women. Again, this is fodder for plenty of IC drama should you choose to comply with the norms or rebel.
If you take as a reference the outstanding series Rome you will see the aloof manner that male & female Patricians took to be a way of life. Note the posture the way they hold their heads high so they can look down on the little people of the city. If you take all these as learning tools for your rp you will be somewhere close to finding that spark of ingenuity that is role play creativity.
Start with a blue print for character and work from there, use as much material you can gather from all sources & really go to town with back story and building your own character.
Suggested patrician last names:
Aemilia, Aniensis, Arnensis, Camilia Claudia, Clustumina, Collina, Cornelia, Esquilina, Fabia , Falerna, Galeria , Horatia , Lemonia, Maecia, Menenia, Papiria, Pollia, Pomptina , Publilia ,Pupinia, Romilia, Sabatina, Sergia ,Stellatina Suburana, Terentina Tromentina Quirina Velina, Voltina, Oufentina Voturia Palantina Scaptia
Patrician names currently in use in Pompeii:
Cornelia, Licinia, Valeria, Publilia
Please speak to the respective players if you wish to join their family.
There were various spellings to theses gens and in the past there were more patrician families but they had either died out or had lost patrician status if you were not of theses house but still noble you were probably part of Equestrian order. Rich plebians might reach Equestrian status with a lot of manouvering - and just like today nobility didn't guarantee success or wealth .
Thursday 29 December 2016
A Guide line for great Role Play - by Lexie Okelly
The basics
1. Choosing your character
You arrived in the sim and are interested in getting involved in the Role Play here.
First thing is if you do not like to use flowery, classical language then perhaps Patrician is not for you, if you like to be course and speak eloquently then maybe look to a character suited to your style of rp. There were rich Plebeians but people seem put off by the idea of playing them.
Slaves? you want to work hard and know what oppression and being conquered by another race is? then this is for you. It isn't for girls or boys who like to sit around and look pretty consider Patrician if that is the case.
Know your limits if you are very new to rp then you probably are not suited to a high profile role and need to rethink, roles such as Senator or Ludus leader take a lot of good quality role play and would only really suit strong role players with a lot of experience.
Consider perhaps the Vigillium but remember if you are new to this you will be starting from scratch & will have to prove your worth I.C. & O.O.C. to move up the chain of command. Do you have what it takes to see this through? or would you just like to be a casual soldier with the freedom to do your job visit the Lupa and not worry that the scrolls need doing tomorrow.
Would you like to run a market stall ? and get a feel for the ordinary life of Rome with the opportunity to meet people and hopefully encourage rp this way
Perhaps you want to entertain the Men & Woman of Rome in a physical sense? either as a Gladiator or as a Lupa fighting or fornicating. The list of parts for both Male & Female players is endless and offers opportunities for all.
2. Dress the part
If you are a Lady think fabulous exquisite gowns drapery, jewelery, Hair decorated with curls,pins,combs e.t.c. no Patrician would ever have messy unkempt hair.
Patrician males can make use use of richly dressed togas' medallions and short immaculate hair, clean shaven & smart was the fashion in Rome. Men often curled their hair.
Plebeians can work a poorer version of the Patricians with attention to cleavage for ladies & perhaps legs shown for men. Colours in use should be darker & dowdier and fabrics reflecting this also, worked well though this can still be a very attractive look & simple pieces of jewelery work well also. Guards should be in military dress as dictated by the Legatus for a more casual look go by the class of the soldier.
Lupas have a free reign for dressing over the top with jewels and painted faces, nothing is too garish nor revealing for a whore. Slaves should consider short tunics as a basis for their costume unless otherwise stated attractiveness should come from the slave & not from the adornments or elaborate hair styles. Gladiators of both sexes need to look rough and ready & here you can really go to town with beards & long rough looking hair.
The look is barbarian and should be a contrast to the pristine Roman appearance. Animal furs, scraps or leather, metal Armour you name it a very eclectic look.
Tattoos were shunned in Roman society as they were used to identify criminals and were used by barbarian cultures. The roman word for tattoo is 'stigmatae' - and no self respecting Roman would have one for no reason. Millitary men are believed to have discrete tattoos for the purpose of discouraging desertion and to allow identification of bodies after death. Please be true to the origins of your tattoos if you choose to use them - avoid rockabilly, oriental or tribal designs.
3. Getting into the Role play
So you have touched base with players & decided what you want to play now we come to the do's and don't's of Role play.
1. Do try to make your character as realistic as you can and react as that character & not necessarily how you would react in Real life.
2. Do try not to take Out of Character insults into In Character this means you have a fall out with a player but your character is still friends with that player, either avoid for a while or react and try your best to deal with the situation. The same goes for In Character insults and situations try not to take things to heart in Out of Character.
3. Speech marks when your character is speaking please use speech marks this makes it much easier to differentiate between when you are speaking & emoting, less mix ups in rp happen if we know what was meant to be said and what was merely thought.
4. God modding please do not use words to force another character to do things, you must attempt every action that you would carry out on another player.
5. Meter reading this is another taboo if you learn something O.O.C. then you do not use it to cheat & gain information for I.C.
6. Accept peoples limits and act accordingly do not force players into rp they are not comfortable with O.O.C. ask in I.M. if unsure and accept if the player will not rp something.
7. Have fun be creative & leave the 21st century behind as you explore characters from a time long ago. No slang or modern expressions should be used instead think of how they would have spoken in this era. Consider that it would have been very different to now.
8. So that is it for now please consider these suggestions as a guide only and build on them injecting your own creativity into the roles.
1. Choosing your character
You arrived in the sim and are interested in getting involved in the Role Play here.
First thing is if you do not like to use flowery, classical language then perhaps Patrician is not for you, if you like to be course and speak eloquently then maybe look to a character suited to your style of rp. There were rich Plebeians but people seem put off by the idea of playing them.
Slaves? you want to work hard and know what oppression and being conquered by another race is? then this is for you. It isn't for girls or boys who like to sit around and look pretty consider Patrician if that is the case.
Know your limits if you are very new to rp then you probably are not suited to a high profile role and need to rethink, roles such as Senator or Ludus leader take a lot of good quality role play and would only really suit strong role players with a lot of experience.
Consider perhaps the Vigillium but remember if you are new to this you will be starting from scratch & will have to prove your worth I.C. & O.O.C. to move up the chain of command. Do you have what it takes to see this through? or would you just like to be a casual soldier with the freedom to do your job visit the Lupa and not worry that the scrolls need doing tomorrow.
Would you like to run a market stall ? and get a feel for the ordinary life of Rome with the opportunity to meet people and hopefully encourage rp this way
Perhaps you want to entertain the Men & Woman of Rome in a physical sense? either as a Gladiator or as a Lupa fighting or fornicating. The list of parts for both Male & Female players is endless and offers opportunities for all.
2. Dress the part
If you are a Lady think fabulous exquisite gowns drapery, jewelery, Hair decorated with curls,pins,combs e.t.c. no Patrician would ever have messy unkempt hair.
Patrician males can make use use of richly dressed togas' medallions and short immaculate hair, clean shaven & smart was the fashion in Rome. Men often curled their hair.
Plebeians can work a poorer version of the Patricians with attention to cleavage for ladies & perhaps legs shown for men. Colours in use should be darker & dowdier and fabrics reflecting this also, worked well though this can still be a very attractive look & simple pieces of jewelery work well also. Guards should be in military dress as dictated by the Legatus for a more casual look go by the class of the soldier.
Lupas have a free reign for dressing over the top with jewels and painted faces, nothing is too garish nor revealing for a whore. Slaves should consider short tunics as a basis for their costume unless otherwise stated attractiveness should come from the slave & not from the adornments or elaborate hair styles. Gladiators of both sexes need to look rough and ready & here you can really go to town with beards & long rough looking hair.
The look is barbarian and should be a contrast to the pristine Roman appearance. Animal furs, scraps or leather, metal Armour you name it a very eclectic look.
Tattoos were shunned in Roman society as they were used to identify criminals and were used by barbarian cultures. The roman word for tattoo is 'stigmatae' - and no self respecting Roman would have one for no reason. Millitary men are believed to have discrete tattoos for the purpose of discouraging desertion and to allow identification of bodies after death. Please be true to the origins of your tattoos if you choose to use them - avoid rockabilly, oriental or tribal designs.
3. Getting into the Role play
So you have touched base with players & decided what you want to play now we come to the do's and don't's of Role play.
1. Do try to make your character as realistic as you can and react as that character & not necessarily how you would react in Real life.
2. Do try not to take Out of Character insults into In Character this means you have a fall out with a player but your character is still friends with that player, either avoid for a while or react and try your best to deal with the situation. The same goes for In Character insults and situations try not to take things to heart in Out of Character.
3. Speech marks when your character is speaking please use speech marks this makes it much easier to differentiate between when you are speaking & emoting, less mix ups in rp happen if we know what was meant to be said and what was merely thought.
4. God modding please do not use words to force another character to do things, you must attempt every action that you would carry out on another player.
5. Meter reading this is another taboo if you learn something O.O.C. then you do not use it to cheat & gain information for I.C.
6. Accept peoples limits and act accordingly do not force players into rp they are not comfortable with O.O.C. ask in I.M. if unsure and accept if the player will not rp something.
7. Have fun be creative & leave the 21st century behind as you explore characters from a time long ago. No slang or modern expressions should be used instead think of how they would have spoken in this era. Consider that it would have been very different to now.
8. So that is it for now please consider these suggestions as a guide only and build on them injecting your own creativity into the roles.
Saturday 24 December 2016
Changes to RP in Pompeii
We realize that shifting the sim's focus to dark style RP will not be to everyones taste, but the majority of players we feel would prefer something more dangerous for their characters to react to beyond the light fluffy everyday living.
This will come in the form of the Vigiles being more oppressive. Smashing merchants stalls of those that have yet to buy their merchant licenses, arresting vagabonds on the street, planting evidence in peoples homes if they have crossed the wrong high end people like the magistrate and Praetor.
Those found breaking the law or appearing to will have much heavier consequences from the magistrate.
The social standing of patricians over plebians will be more evident in the way plebians will be regarded with distain by most because they are not part of the upper classes. So expect to be judged by those who consider themselves higher up the food chain and society will look down on any trying to crawl up the ladder. There will be nastyness, bitchyness and rudeness - none of which will be personal. So it will be more important than ever that you make the right friends with influence or risk Fortuna turning her back on you when you need it most.
Slaves will be watched more closely by the likes of the vigiles and possibly even ex slaves will find they are under suspicion from others with a chance of being blamed for things that go wrong. Gladiators will have their lives more at risk and more paranoia of a slave uprising of course, and even those that are not of roman blood who have never been slaves, will find they could be treated as such.
It really is important that people play the roles that they have chosen, realize the limits that imposes and how others will react to you. if you want power and influence then you need a position on sim that will reflect that, rather than rely on background, families back in rome and so on. (these positions will be limited to avoid powergaming) if you want to feel oppressed and shat on from a great height then choose a role that makes you one of the working classes, merchant, slum rats, slaves/gladiators and so on. If you want to do the oppressing then join the vigiles, and lastly if you want to try and beat the system and see the romans suffer - come on board as a criminal. There is roles for everyone.
Given that there are a number of storylines that have fallen by the wayside over the holidays period these last few weeks, we want to start this off with a fresh start and have a Saturnalia party where the new rp style will kick in. This will give everyone a chance to think over if they wish to remain in Pompeii or even reroll as a new character and kick the new darker focused RP off with a bang. (date will be over the xmas/new year)
There will of course be plenty of laughs and light hearted moments and as always OOC'ly we hope everyone will be supportive and friendly as they have always been, and ultimately we hope this will draw players of like minds who enjoy playing a more indulgent, power hungry, self serving, realistic and oppressive loving player over those that prefer a lighter happy family bunny hugging rp. (Not that there is anything wrong with that lol)
If you wish to abruptly change your storline to suit this new direction please send any admin an application form informing us of your changes.
If there are players that do not wish to be involved in dark rp, then we honestly wish you the best for your future RP
This will come in the form of the Vigiles being more oppressive. Smashing merchants stalls of those that have yet to buy their merchant licenses, arresting vagabonds on the street, planting evidence in peoples homes if they have crossed the wrong high end people like the magistrate and Praetor.
Those found breaking the law or appearing to will have much heavier consequences from the magistrate.
The social standing of patricians over plebians will be more evident in the way plebians will be regarded with distain by most because they are not part of the upper classes. So expect to be judged by those who consider themselves higher up the food chain and society will look down on any trying to crawl up the ladder. There will be nastyness, bitchyness and rudeness - none of which will be personal. So it will be more important than ever that you make the right friends with influence or risk Fortuna turning her back on you when you need it most.
Slaves will be watched more closely by the likes of the vigiles and possibly even ex slaves will find they are under suspicion from others with a chance of being blamed for things that go wrong. Gladiators will have their lives more at risk and more paranoia of a slave uprising of course, and even those that are not of roman blood who have never been slaves, will find they could be treated as such.
It really is important that people play the roles that they have chosen, realize the limits that imposes and how others will react to you. if you want power and influence then you need a position on sim that will reflect that, rather than rely on background, families back in rome and so on. (these positions will be limited to avoid powergaming) if you want to feel oppressed and shat on from a great height then choose a role that makes you one of the working classes, merchant, slum rats, slaves/gladiators and so on. If you want to do the oppressing then join the vigiles, and lastly if you want to try and beat the system and see the romans suffer - come on board as a criminal. There is roles for everyone.
Given that there are a number of storylines that have fallen by the wayside over the holidays period these last few weeks, we want to start this off with a fresh start and have a Saturnalia party where the new rp style will kick in. This will give everyone a chance to think over if they wish to remain in Pompeii or even reroll as a new character and kick the new darker focused RP off with a bang. (date will be over the xmas/new year)
There will of course be plenty of laughs and light hearted moments and as always OOC'ly we hope everyone will be supportive and friendly as they have always been, and ultimately we hope this will draw players of like minds who enjoy playing a more indulgent, power hungry, self serving, realistic and oppressive loving player over those that prefer a lighter happy family bunny hugging rp. (Not that there is anything wrong with that lol)
If you wish to abruptly change your storline to suit this new direction please send any admin an application form informing us of your changes.
If there are players that do not wish to be involved in dark rp, then we honestly wish you the best for your future RP
Saturday 17 December 2016
OOC Drama and how to avoid it...
Everyone loves a bit of IC drama. It creates stories, allows your character to grow and respond and can be fun to role play.
But there can be leakage of IC conflict into OOC if people are unable to seperate their IC experience from their OOC experience. This can be the start of OOC arguments between players and anyone who has played in an RP sim for any length of time will know what a volatile place it can be for drama.
I have a few simple strategies to deal with OOC drama or reduce the occurence.
1) Nip it in the bud.
Change the subject or end the RP if you get any negative vibes from your RP friend.
If you are uncomfortable with the RP, IM the person you are interacting with. It is likely that they are not aware or merely playing a role.
If you cannot handle someone's IC behaviour, it is always a good idea to end the RP and leave.
2) Avoid troublemakers
Word gets around and reputations often proceed players. I would strongly advise people to always see for themselves. Writing is very much a style and you will have people who like it and people who don't. But often, if all you get is a consistently negative description of a player, then proceed with caution!
3) Keep interactions polite and brief with someone who you suspect has OOC drama with you.
4) RP ban
This is not a physical ban. But rather a blanket ban of a certain player and their interactions with you and your story. If you RP ban someone, you are stating that they are invisible to you and none of their posts will affect your story. It's not a ban anyone can enforce entirely, however if a player repeatedly flouts this ban, it can be considered harrassment and grounds for a complaint. P.S: Muting helps
Playing a villian increases the risks of OOC drama. I've played antagonists before and really it is a thankless role. You need to be prepared for IC consequences for your actions. And some OOC ones too when people who want to be immune from negative interactions complain when you try to RP with them. But in an environment where everyone is on the same page, it is awesome good fun. Here's how to play a villain well:
1) Give the person you are RPing with, a way to get out of their situation
Some people don't like to be mugged or threatened or have their IC lives in peril. Give them a warning post so they can run away. Or stay and enjoy juicy juicy RP drama.
Example of warning post:
He eyed her with a lewd expression on his face, his intentions clear. He would take a step forwards to close the gap between them if allowed. Staying within arm's reach of him, was not a good idea at all.
2) Be wary of powergaming, be realistic with your strengths and weaknesses
Example of powergaming:
He roared with bestial rage, his muscles rippling under his clothing, showing off his immense strength. Even though he was a toilet cleaner by day, by night he was the super uber dooper gang leader who had his face hidden by this impenetrable hood and therefore was not recognisable to anyone during the day. Little did they know that he had a noble upbringing being the heir to the Roman empire and favourite son of Julius Caesar but chose to be a lowly plebian so he could slip in and out and be an AMAZING assassin of ninja caliber. He had killed many people. Mark Anthony, Cleopatra, even Darius, Xerxes and Hannibal. All of them succumbed to his deadly blade.
3) Be wary of godmodding, this is something that is often unintentional and related to sentence construction. Consider the following sentence:
He grabbed her hair and pulled it back, causing her to fall back against him.
vs.
He reached out to grab her hair and pull it back. If successful this would cause her to fall back against him.
The first sentence is an example of godmodding. As the writer has assumed that when he reached out to grab her hair, he managed to grab it and successfully pull her backwards.
The second sentence says the same thing but allows your RP friend to react and change the outcome if they wish.
METAGAMING
This is the cause of many explosions of OOC drama and the main cause of complaints to admins.
Essentially the definition is to exploit OOC knowledge in order to gain advantage in a situation or influence an outcome. Here are some examples:
1) Calling for help in an RP faction group chat when one's IC self is being threatened in an empty sim. And then have the whole group descend on the attacker forcing them to retreat. This was really annoying when playing as a vampire... seriously! The ultimate in this form of metagaming is IMing someone in a non SL messenger to log in and thwart a dastardly deed when there is no IC way of people knowing that there is a dastardly deed happening in the first place.
2) Seeing and/or hearing through walls.
Even though you are within chat distance, do not assume that you can hear someone's conversation unless they explicitly say that they are talking loudly or that there were loud noises suggesting a scuffle or someone was screaming or something to attract your attention so you would for e.g: enter the room or press your ear to the door.
To use information from this RP when you are outside the wall is considered metagaming.
3) Reading nametags
This is a double edged sword. Some people get mad when you read nametags, some people get mad when you don't. TLDR: Reading nametags is metagaming.
Here's the thing. Many gamers in here wear nametags which display names, social status and perhaps the RP group they belong to. If you are meeting someone for the first time, reading their nametag is a nono in RP ettiquette. For e.g: "Salve, Constantina Periwinkle Titaina, noble daughter of Titanus Magnificus Maximus. I am meeting you for the first time and my name is Dimmus Dummus." You can already see that post makes little sense. How do you know someone's name and other details if you have not been introduced.
SL has an added dimension to what is essentially text RP which is the visual side of things - the props, the costumes etc. So, if someone RPs that they have assumed you are so and so by the way you are dressed, and they are wrong, then you should respond IC. For e.g: You are a some highborn senator guy and you wear an outfit that looks like conan the barbarian. Some person who doesn't know you then RPs that they assume from your clothing that you are a barbaric slave. In this case, getting huffy about it OOC is ridiculous. Assuming someone should have read your nametag and therefore known this wasn't the case is unreasonable. Do this instead: Correct them IC either politely or witheringly. It's all good.
4) Using information obtained OOC to use in IC situations
This includes reading the transcripts on our website or being told information OOC by someone else.
5) Reading thought emotes.
Here is one of the biggest reasons for OOC drama. I am going to go into this in detail so you understand the thought processes when ultimately an admin is called into mediate.
Firstly let's talk about thought emotes. We all do them, they can be positive or negative. Sometimes they set the tone for your character, your responses, your perceived relationship with the other character and the scene. However, sometimes there is a fine line between using them for all of the above reasons and using them as a passive aggressive tool to insult someone without giving them the opportunity to respond.
Let's analyse the following scenario. Sextina thinks that Livia is a cow. Livia isn't supposed to know because Sextina is being hypocritical. Here are two examples of posts - one petty and the other, full of juicy IC drama.
Example 1: Sextina smiled sweetly at the big fat cow. "Of course I will help you my dear." And she made a big show of being kind and helpful in a way that was faultless.
In this example, Sextina has given Livia a direct insult but gave her no way to respond in any way apart from gratitude.
Example 2: Sextina smiled sweetly at the woman. She disliked her immensely and thought she was a big fat cow. "Of course I will help you my dear." Her smile froze on her face to some degree as she set upon the task of assisting her.
In this example, Livia has an opportunity to pickup that her smile was somewhat contrive and would therefore be justified IC in suspecting that this person might not be all she seems. And this will lead to more RP.
Now let us look at some responses to the above examples.
Example 1: Sextina smiled sweetly at the big fat cow. "Of course I will help you my dear." And she made a big show of being kind and helpful in a way that was faultless.
Response 1: Livia smiled back at the rude bitch. "Thank you very much." She replied. She received her help and even exploited it because Sextina was so rude and stuff.
This is metagaming. Livia was reading the thought emote and responding accordingly. While it was understandable that she did so, being passive aggressive is not explicitly against the rules, whereas metagaming is.
Response 2: Livia smiled back unaware of the simmering hostility. "Gratitude," She replied with sincere thanks.
Less gratifying I'll admit for Livia's typist. But this response acknowledges the passive aggression without actually responding IC to it. Also the best way to halt behaviour like this is... to nip it in the bud (see the top of this article) with a short emote that gives the other person nothing to respond to. The RP interaction will be over very quickly. If Sextina's typist continues with the passive aggressive thought emotes, then it will become very evident very quickly that she is just being a troll.
Example 2: Sextina smiled sweetly at the woman. She disliked her immensely and thought she was a big fat cow. "Of course I will help you my dear." Her smile froze on her face to some degree as she set upon the task of assisting her.
Response 1: Livia saw the frozen smile and frowned. "You don't have to help if you dislike me so much and think I am a big fat cow..."
This is metagaming for reasons I've already mentioned in the previous example.
Response 2: Livia saw the frozen smile and said, "Gratitude..." but a little uncertainly. She sensed a little hostility under the smile but dismissed the thought as being ridiculous. Surely Sextina was being a sincere friend to her. "Something on your mind?" She asked, innocently.
Livia here is picking on the visual cues that Sextina's typist has given her. She acknowledges the thought emote by writing out her thought processes, clarifying her character's position as being unsuspecting and curious. Then she gives the storyline a chance to continue by asking a question.
Roleplaying can be a really fun and rewarding past time but I hope I've been able to illustrate the most common pitfalls that can trip up even the most skillful of players. And remember, just because someone is a bad player, doesn't mean you have to be worse.
Have fun!
But there can be leakage of IC conflict into OOC if people are unable to seperate their IC experience from their OOC experience. This can be the start of OOC arguments between players and anyone who has played in an RP sim for any length of time will know what a volatile place it can be for drama.
I have a few simple strategies to deal with OOC drama or reduce the occurence.
1) Nip it in the bud.
Change the subject or end the RP if you get any negative vibes from your RP friend.
If you are uncomfortable with the RP, IM the person you are interacting with. It is likely that they are not aware or merely playing a role.
If you cannot handle someone's IC behaviour, it is always a good idea to end the RP and leave.
2) Avoid troublemakers
Word gets around and reputations often proceed players. I would strongly advise people to always see for themselves. Writing is very much a style and you will have people who like it and people who don't. But often, if all you get is a consistently negative description of a player, then proceed with caution!
3) Keep interactions polite and brief with someone who you suspect has OOC drama with you.
4) RP ban
This is not a physical ban. But rather a blanket ban of a certain player and their interactions with you and your story. If you RP ban someone, you are stating that they are invisible to you and none of their posts will affect your story. It's not a ban anyone can enforce entirely, however if a player repeatedly flouts this ban, it can be considered harrassment and grounds for a complaint. P.S: Muting helps
Playing a villian increases the risks of OOC drama. I've played antagonists before and really it is a thankless role. You need to be prepared for IC consequences for your actions. And some OOC ones too when people who want to be immune from negative interactions complain when you try to RP with them. But in an environment where everyone is on the same page, it is awesome good fun. Here's how to play a villain well:
1) Give the person you are RPing with, a way to get out of their situation
Some people don't like to be mugged or threatened or have their IC lives in peril. Give them a warning post so they can run away. Or stay and enjoy juicy juicy RP drama.
Example of warning post:
He eyed her with a lewd expression on his face, his intentions clear. He would take a step forwards to close the gap between them if allowed. Staying within arm's reach of him, was not a good idea at all.
2) Be wary of powergaming, be realistic with your strengths and weaknesses
Example of powergaming:
He roared with bestial rage, his muscles rippling under his clothing, showing off his immense strength. Even though he was a toilet cleaner by day, by night he was the super uber dooper gang leader who had his face hidden by this impenetrable hood and therefore was not recognisable to anyone during the day. Little did they know that he had a noble upbringing being the heir to the Roman empire and favourite son of Julius Caesar but chose to be a lowly plebian so he could slip in and out and be an AMAZING assassin of ninja caliber. He had killed many people. Mark Anthony, Cleopatra, even Darius, Xerxes and Hannibal. All of them succumbed to his deadly blade.
3) Be wary of godmodding, this is something that is often unintentional and related to sentence construction. Consider the following sentence:
He grabbed her hair and pulled it back, causing her to fall back against him.
vs.
He reached out to grab her hair and pull it back. If successful this would cause her to fall back against him.
The first sentence is an example of godmodding. As the writer has assumed that when he reached out to grab her hair, he managed to grab it and successfully pull her backwards.
The second sentence says the same thing but allows your RP friend to react and change the outcome if they wish.
METAGAMING
This is the cause of many explosions of OOC drama and the main cause of complaints to admins.
Essentially the definition is to exploit OOC knowledge in order to gain advantage in a situation or influence an outcome. Here are some examples:
1) Calling for help in an RP faction group chat when one's IC self is being threatened in an empty sim. And then have the whole group descend on the attacker forcing them to retreat. This was really annoying when playing as a vampire... seriously! The ultimate in this form of metagaming is IMing someone in a non SL messenger to log in and thwart a dastardly deed when there is no IC way of people knowing that there is a dastardly deed happening in the first place.
2) Seeing and/or hearing through walls.
Even though you are within chat distance, do not assume that you can hear someone's conversation unless they explicitly say that they are talking loudly or that there were loud noises suggesting a scuffle or someone was screaming or something to attract your attention so you would for e.g: enter the room or press your ear to the door.
To use information from this RP when you are outside the wall is considered metagaming.
3) Reading nametags
This is a double edged sword. Some people get mad when you read nametags, some people get mad when you don't. TLDR: Reading nametags is metagaming.
Here's the thing. Many gamers in here wear nametags which display names, social status and perhaps the RP group they belong to. If you are meeting someone for the first time, reading their nametag is a nono in RP ettiquette. For e.g: "Salve, Constantina Periwinkle Titaina, noble daughter of Titanus Magnificus Maximus. I am meeting you for the first time and my name is Dimmus Dummus." You can already see that post makes little sense. How do you know someone's name and other details if you have not been introduced.
SL has an added dimension to what is essentially text RP which is the visual side of things - the props, the costumes etc. So, if someone RPs that they have assumed you are so and so by the way you are dressed, and they are wrong, then you should respond IC. For e.g: You are a some highborn senator guy and you wear an outfit that looks like conan the barbarian. Some person who doesn't know you then RPs that they assume from your clothing that you are a barbaric slave. In this case, getting huffy about it OOC is ridiculous. Assuming someone should have read your nametag and therefore known this wasn't the case is unreasonable. Do this instead: Correct them IC either politely or witheringly. It's all good.
4) Using information obtained OOC to use in IC situations
This includes reading the transcripts on our website or being told information OOC by someone else.
5) Reading thought emotes.
Here is one of the biggest reasons for OOC drama. I am going to go into this in detail so you understand the thought processes when ultimately an admin is called into mediate.
Firstly let's talk about thought emotes. We all do them, they can be positive or negative. Sometimes they set the tone for your character, your responses, your perceived relationship with the other character and the scene. However, sometimes there is a fine line between using them for all of the above reasons and using them as a passive aggressive tool to insult someone without giving them the opportunity to respond.
Let's analyse the following scenario. Sextina thinks that Livia is a cow. Livia isn't supposed to know because Sextina is being hypocritical. Here are two examples of posts - one petty and the other, full of juicy IC drama.
Example 1: Sextina smiled sweetly at the big fat cow. "Of course I will help you my dear." And she made a big show of being kind and helpful in a way that was faultless.
In this example, Sextina has given Livia a direct insult but gave her no way to respond in any way apart from gratitude.
Example 2: Sextina smiled sweetly at the woman. She disliked her immensely and thought she was a big fat cow. "Of course I will help you my dear." Her smile froze on her face to some degree as she set upon the task of assisting her.
In this example, Livia has an opportunity to pickup that her smile was somewhat contrive and would therefore be justified IC in suspecting that this person might not be all she seems. And this will lead to more RP.
Now let us look at some responses to the above examples.
Example 1: Sextina smiled sweetly at the big fat cow. "Of course I will help you my dear." And she made a big show of being kind and helpful in a way that was faultless.
Response 1: Livia smiled back at the rude bitch. "Thank you very much." She replied. She received her help and even exploited it because Sextina was so rude and stuff.
This is metagaming. Livia was reading the thought emote and responding accordingly. While it was understandable that she did so, being passive aggressive is not explicitly against the rules, whereas metagaming is.
Response 2: Livia smiled back unaware of the simmering hostility. "Gratitude," She replied with sincere thanks.
Less gratifying I'll admit for Livia's typist. But this response acknowledges the passive aggression without actually responding IC to it. Also the best way to halt behaviour like this is... to nip it in the bud (see the top of this article) with a short emote that gives the other person nothing to respond to. The RP interaction will be over very quickly. If Sextina's typist continues with the passive aggressive thought emotes, then it will become very evident very quickly that she is just being a troll.
Example 2: Sextina smiled sweetly at the woman. She disliked her immensely and thought she was a big fat cow. "Of course I will help you my dear." Her smile froze on her face to some degree as she set upon the task of assisting her.
Response 1: Livia saw the frozen smile and frowned. "You don't have to help if you dislike me so much and think I am a big fat cow..."
This is metagaming for reasons I've already mentioned in the previous example.
Response 2: Livia saw the frozen smile and said, "Gratitude..." but a little uncertainly. She sensed a little hostility under the smile but dismissed the thought as being ridiculous. Surely Sextina was being a sincere friend to her. "Something on your mind?" She asked, innocently.
Livia here is picking on the visual cues that Sextina's typist has given her. She acknowledges the thought emote by writing out her thought processes, clarifying her character's position as being unsuspecting and curious. Then she gives the storyline a chance to continue by asking a question.
Roleplaying can be a really fun and rewarding past time but I hope I've been able to illustrate the most common pitfalls that can trip up even the most skillful of players. And remember, just because someone is a bad player, doesn't mean you have to be worse.
Have fun!
Saturday 3 December 2016
Slavery
Written by octaviaminor Resident
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Should you chose to become a slave at Pompeii you'll need to read up on a few guidelines in order to understand your position as a Roman Slave.
Roman slaves came from all over the known world , they made up quite a large part of the population and as such had a very specific role to play as you will here in Syracuse.
Unlike Gor, there was no distinctions between slaves.. no red or white silks, certainly no passion slaves and a slave could be freed.
The majority of slaves were labourers, and worked the land, in their owners businesses, or sold to a ludus. These slaves had short and brutal lives. The lucky ones became household slaves.
Household slaves often enjoyed a lofty position at the heart of the Roman Family. Greek slaves were especially valued as they were often teachers, scribes, philosophers and most importantly, they were literate. These slaves were entrusted with the children of the family, often taken into confidence by their owners and quite literally where the cogs that made the whole system work.
A slave could own property and earn money under their owners name and patronage and eventually, a slave could earn their freedom at the discretion of their owner. Household slaves were valued and the good ones were treasured.
In public, slaves were fully dressed and their behaviour was a reflection on their owners. Slaves didn't kneel unless instructed to. The correct place for a Roman slave is standing behind their owner, with eyes downcast, ready to serve.
Discipline of slaves varied from house to house, but much like 'airing your dirty laundry' today, this was done in private. No self respecting Roman would let the world perceive his household as anything less than perfect.
City slaves were the property of the local government. Any harm that came to them was subject to compensation and the hand of the law coming down firmly on the person who inflicted the harm. This includes the slavers who's care they were under.
To summarise, slaves were the lifeblood of Roman society and without them nothing would work. They are what the Empire was built upon and by. Despite their unimportance, slaves were essential and invaluable.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Should you chose to become a slave at Pompeii you'll need to read up on a few guidelines in order to understand your position as a Roman Slave.
Roman slaves came from all over the known world , they made up quite a large part of the population and as such had a very specific role to play as you will here in Syracuse.
Unlike Gor, there was no distinctions between slaves.. no red or white silks, certainly no passion slaves and a slave could be freed.
The majority of slaves were labourers, and worked the land, in their owners businesses, or sold to a ludus. These slaves had short and brutal lives. The lucky ones became household slaves.
Household slaves often enjoyed a lofty position at the heart of the Roman Family. Greek slaves were especially valued as they were often teachers, scribes, philosophers and most importantly, they were literate. These slaves were entrusted with the children of the family, often taken into confidence by their owners and quite literally where the cogs that made the whole system work.
A slave could own property and earn money under their owners name and patronage and eventually, a slave could earn their freedom at the discretion of their owner. Household slaves were valued and the good ones were treasured.
In public, slaves were fully dressed and their behaviour was a reflection on their owners. Slaves didn't kneel unless instructed to. The correct place for a Roman slave is standing behind their owner, with eyes downcast, ready to serve.
Discipline of slaves varied from house to house, but much like 'airing your dirty laundry' today, this was done in private. No self respecting Roman would let the world perceive his household as anything less than perfect.
City slaves were the property of the local government. Any harm that came to them was subject to compensation and the hand of the law coming down firmly on the person who inflicted the harm. This includes the slavers who's care they were under.
To summarise, slaves were the lifeblood of Roman society and without them nothing would work. They are what the Empire was built upon and by. Despite their unimportance, slaves were essential and invaluable.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
For reference only - suggested bidding prices for slaves:
1 farm slave (male) …………...................................27-270 denarii
1.common slave (child)...........…….......................27-1067 denarii
1 common slave (female)......…….....................53-1067 denarii
1 common slave (male)......................................53-533 denarii
1 special slave (gladiator, guard)...................270-533 denarii
1 special slave (female, pretty or
trained in special skills)……….................2700-10680 denarii
1 skilled slave (carpenter, accountant,
scribe, blacksmith etc)…............................533-2700 denarii
1 Greek tutor slave.......................................5400-27000 denarii
1.common slave (child)...........…….......................27-1067 denarii
1 common slave (female)......…….....................53-1067 denarii
1 common slave (male)......................................53-533 denarii
1 special slave (gladiator, guard)...................270-533 denarii
1 special slave (female, pretty or
trained in special skills)……….................2700-10680 denarii
1 skilled slave (carpenter, accountant,
scribe, blacksmith etc)…............................533-2700 denarii
1 Greek tutor slave.......................................5400-27000 denarii
Roman social Classes during the republic
Written by octaviaminor Resident
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Rome knew four classes of people. This division was very important to the Romans. The lowest class were the slaves. They were owned by other people. They had no rights at all.
The next class were the plebeians. They were free people. But they had little say at all. The second highest class were the equestrians (sometimes they are called the 'knights'). Their name means the 'riders', as they were given a horse to ride if they were called to fight for Rome. To be an equestrian you had to be rich. The highest class were the nobles of Rome. They were called 'patricians'. All the real power in Rome lay with them.
The Roman Republic was a very successful government. It lasted from 510 BC until 23 BC - almost 500 years.
Patricians
Wealthy influential landowning families
The patricians were the upper class of Rome. Two Latin terms are used to designate them, patres and patricii. Where ? exactly they come from is not known, but many people have theorized about it and repeated what traditions claim. Here ? you'll read about a few of these ideas.
Patricians may have originally been relatives of the patres 'fathers', the heads of the families of the old tribes of ?
Rome. Patres could refer to members of the senate, since during the Republic, the senators were referred to as patres et conscripti 'conscript (and) fathers,' whether or not they were patricians.
On the other hand, Patres sometimes referred not to the senate but to patricians.
Staveley says that traditionalists have no sense of confusion. "For them the original Senate of Romulus, which derived its collective title patres from the fact of its being an assembly of patres familiae, was itself all-patrician." The plebeian element of the Senate was found in the conscripti, as distinct from the patres. Patres et conscripti may have later been used to distinguish the senators created in the regal period from ones added later or it may have distinguished hereditary senators from non-hereditary ones in the Regal period. However, the term patricii also designates the hereditary senators.
The Old Tribes
The old patricians were thought to have been divided into 3 tribes, Tities, Luceres, and Ramnes. Each tribe consisted of 10 curiae. Patricians lost privileges over time, but patrician status and parentage remained necessary for the confarreatio type of marriages, ceremonial positions, and ancient priestly functions, including the vestal virgins.
The patricians as a group are sometimes referred to as the patriciate.
Equestrians
Wealthy property owners who chose business over politics
Equites were Roman horsemen or knights. The name is derived from the Latin for horse, equus. The equites came to be a social class. A single member of the equestrian class was called an eques.
Origins:
Originally, there were supposed to have been 300 equites during the time of Romulus. 100 were taken from each of the three tribes Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres. Each of these patrician hundreds was a century (centuria) and each century was named for its tribe. They were called "celeres." Under Tullus Hostilius there were six centuries. By the time of Servius Tullius there were 18 centuries, the last twelve drawn from the richest, but not necessarily patrician, men.
Development:
The equites were originally an important division of the Roman army, but over time, they lost their military prominence moving to the wings of the phalanx. They still voted first in the comitia and kept two horses and a groom each -- more than any others in the army. When the Roman army started to receive pay, the equites received three times that of the ordinary troops. After Punic War II the equites lost their military position.
Service:
An eques was bound to a certain number of campaigns, but no more than ten. Upon completion they entered the first class.
Later Equites:
Later Equites had the right to sit on juries and came to occupy an important third place in Roman policies and politics, standing between the senatorial class and the people.
Disgrace and Dismissal:
When an eques was deemed unworthy, he was told to sell his horse (vende equum). When no disgrace was involved, someone no longer fit would be told to lead his horse on. There was a waiting list to replace the dismissed eques.
Plebeians
Working class. Men without substantial wealth who worked for their living at jobs such as artisans, craftsmen, bakers etc
Today, the term plebeian is synonymous with lower class. In early Rome, the plebeians (also known simply as plebs) may
have been that part of the Roman population whose origin was among the conquered Latins (as opposed to the Roman conquerors). Plebeians were contrasted with the patrician nobility. In the period of the early Roman Republic, membership in the Senate may have been denied to the plebeians, and restricted to the patricians. Since the ruling body of the Senate was more interested in itself than others, the plebeians suffered. Over time the plebeians were able to amass wealth and great power. By the time of Caesar, the patrician Claudius chose to become a plebeian (something he could do through adoption) in order to hold an important political office, the Tribune of the Plebs.
Freed Slaves
Slaves who had either been given their freedom or had paid for their freedom and now worked for their living.
Slaves
Generally prisoners of war but sometimes abandoned children who were owned by their master
Social Classes in the Late Republic
Rome was a highly hierarchial and class-conscious society, but there was the possibility of mobility between most classes because by the second century BCE class was no longer determined solely by birth. The classes described below superseded the old patrician/plebeian distinction, though certain elements of dress and religious positions and rituals were still reserved for patricians.There was a large gulf between the wealthy upper classes , and the poorer lower classes, though it was still possible—although quite difficult—to move upwards by acquiring sufficient wealth.
Upper Classes
Senatorial class (senatores): The basis for this class was political. It included all men who served in the Senate, and by extension their families. This class was dominated by the nobles (nobiles), families whose ancestors included at leastone consul (earlier the qualification had been a curule magistracy, i.e. curule aedile and up). The first man in his family to be elected consul, thus qualifying his family for noble status, was called a “new man” (novus homo), although
this term was used in varying senses—it could refer to an equesterian who was the first in his family to be elected to political office and thus join the senatorial class, or to a man from the senatorial class who was the first in his family ?
to be elected consul and thus join the nobles, or most dramatically to an equestrian like Cicero who was elected consul. Senators had to prove that they had property worth at least 1,000,000 sesterces; there was no salary attached to service in the Senate, and senators were prohibited from engaging personally in nonagricultural business, trade or public contracts. Men of the senatorial class wore the tunic with broad stripes (laticlavi).
Equestrian class (equites): The basis for this class was economic. A man could be formally enrolled in the equestrian order if he could prove that he possessed a stable minimum amount of wealth (property worth at least 400,000 sesterces); by extension his family members were also considered equestrians. However, if an equestrian was elected to a magistracy and entered the Senate, he moved up to the senatorial class; this was not particularly easy or frequent. Equestrians were primarily involved in the types of business prohibited to senators. Equestrians wore the tunic with narrow stripes
Women: Although membership in these classes was dominated by the same families over many generations, the classes themselves were defined according to male activities rather than birth. Women's place in these classes was therefore somewhat problematic. However, there came to be a customary acceptance that women belonged to the social class of their fathers and then of their husbands, although the women had no special dress that distinguished their status. This female participation in social status began to crystallize and formalize under Augustus, who explicitly included the daughters, granddaughters, and great-granddaughters of senators in his law prohibiting members of the senatorial class from contracting legal marriages with freed people.
Belonging to one of these upper classes had many significant consequences for Romans besides prestige, for social class determined one's economic and political opportunities, as well as legal rights, benefits and penalties. Rome had nothing comparable to our middle class; the gulf between these two upper classes and the much larger lower classes was immense. However, as long as one was a freeborn Roman citizen there was at least a slight possibility of moving into the equestrian class through the acquisition of wealth. Entry into the senatorial class, even for wealthy equestrians, was extremely difficult, since for centuries a small number of elite families had monopolized this class.
Lower Classes
Commons (plebs or vulgus): all other freeborn Roman citizens. The special mark of dress for citizen males was the toga. All Roman citizens had conubium, the right to contract a legal marriage with another Roman citizen and beget legitimate children who were themselves Roman citizens.
Latins (Latini): freeborn residents of Italy (until 89 BCE, when they were all granted full citizenship) and of certain other Roman municipalities who had some legal rights but were not full Roman citizens. Former slaves who had been informally freed by Roman citizens were a special category, “Junian Latins.”
Foreigners (peregrini): all other freeborn men and women who lived in Roman territories. In 212 CE most freeborn people living within the Roman empire were granted Roman citizenship.
Freed people (liberti or libertini): men and women who had been slaves but had bought their freedom or been manumitted. They were not fully free because they had various restrictions on their rights and owed certain duties to their former masters, who now became their patrons, but they could become citizens if their former masters were citizens and they had been formally manumitted; they were not, however, eligible for public office. This was the one class it was not possible to leave, though the class encompassed only one generation. The next generation, their freeborn children, became full citizens ( members of the commons, though there was a social stigma attached to being a freedman's son) and could even become equestrians if rich enough. Freed people had low social status, and most were probably fairly poor, but it was possible for them to achieve some success in a trade, and a few might even become wealthy. They had no special distinction of dress, though their names indicated their status as freed people.
Slaves (servi): system of chattel slavery where human beings were born into slavery or sold into slavery through war or piracy. Slaves were the property of their owners by law, but by custom some slaves (especially urban, domestic slaves) might be allowed their own savings (peculium) with which they might later buy their freedom, or their masters could manumit them, so some mobility into the previous class was possible. . Roman slavery was not racially based, and slaves had no special distinction of dress, though slaves who had run away were sometimes made to wear metal collars with inscriptions such as the following: “I have run away. Capture me. When you have returned me to my master, Zoninus, you will receive a reward.”
Women: Since the lower classes were not defined by male activities, there was no problem with including women; female and male children were automatically members of the social class of their parents (except for freedpeople, since only one generation could be “freed”). If the parents were Roman citizens and had contracted a legal Roman marriage, the children followed the social status of their father ( they were Roman citizens). However, in the case of Latins, foreigners, and slaves, children took the social status of their mother, even if their father was a freeborn Roman citizen.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Rome knew four classes of people. This division was very important to the Romans. The lowest class were the slaves. They were owned by other people. They had no rights at all.
The next class were the plebeians. They were free people. But they had little say at all. The second highest class were the equestrians (sometimes they are called the 'knights'). Their name means the 'riders', as they were given a horse to ride if they were called to fight for Rome. To be an equestrian you had to be rich. The highest class were the nobles of Rome. They were called 'patricians'. All the real power in Rome lay with them.
The Roman Republic was a very successful government. It lasted from 510 BC until 23 BC - almost 500 years.
Patricians
Wealthy influential landowning families
The patricians were the upper class of Rome. Two Latin terms are used to designate them, patres and patricii. Where ? exactly they come from is not known, but many people have theorized about it and repeated what traditions claim. Here ? you'll read about a few of these ideas.
Patricians may have originally been relatives of the patres 'fathers', the heads of the families of the old tribes of ?
Rome. Patres could refer to members of the senate, since during the Republic, the senators were referred to as patres et conscripti 'conscript (and) fathers,' whether or not they were patricians.
On the other hand, Patres sometimes referred not to the senate but to patricians.
Staveley says that traditionalists have no sense of confusion. "For them the original Senate of Romulus, which derived its collective title patres from the fact of its being an assembly of patres familiae, was itself all-patrician." The plebeian element of the Senate was found in the conscripti, as distinct from the patres. Patres et conscripti may have later been used to distinguish the senators created in the regal period from ones added later or it may have distinguished hereditary senators from non-hereditary ones in the Regal period. However, the term patricii also designates the hereditary senators.
The Old Tribes
The old patricians were thought to have been divided into 3 tribes, Tities, Luceres, and Ramnes. Each tribe consisted of 10 curiae. Patricians lost privileges over time, but patrician status and parentage remained necessary for the confarreatio type of marriages, ceremonial positions, and ancient priestly functions, including the vestal virgins.
The patricians as a group are sometimes referred to as the patriciate.
Equestrians
Wealthy property owners who chose business over politics
Equites were Roman horsemen or knights. The name is derived from the Latin for horse, equus. The equites came to be a social class. A single member of the equestrian class was called an eques.
Origins:
Originally, there were supposed to have been 300 equites during the time of Romulus. 100 were taken from each of the three tribes Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres. Each of these patrician hundreds was a century (centuria) and each century was named for its tribe. They were called "celeres." Under Tullus Hostilius there were six centuries. By the time of Servius Tullius there were 18 centuries, the last twelve drawn from the richest, but not necessarily patrician, men.
Development:
The equites were originally an important division of the Roman army, but over time, they lost their military prominence moving to the wings of the phalanx. They still voted first in the comitia and kept two horses and a groom each -- more than any others in the army. When the Roman army started to receive pay, the equites received three times that of the ordinary troops. After Punic War II the equites lost their military position.
Service:
An eques was bound to a certain number of campaigns, but no more than ten. Upon completion they entered the first class.
Later Equites:
Later Equites had the right to sit on juries and came to occupy an important third place in Roman policies and politics, standing between the senatorial class and the people.
Disgrace and Dismissal:
When an eques was deemed unworthy, he was told to sell his horse (vende equum). When no disgrace was involved, someone no longer fit would be told to lead his horse on. There was a waiting list to replace the dismissed eques.
Plebeians
Working class. Men without substantial wealth who worked for their living at jobs such as artisans, craftsmen, bakers etc
Today, the term plebeian is synonymous with lower class. In early Rome, the plebeians (also known simply as plebs) may
have been that part of the Roman population whose origin was among the conquered Latins (as opposed to the Roman conquerors). Plebeians were contrasted with the patrician nobility. In the period of the early Roman Republic, membership in the Senate may have been denied to the plebeians, and restricted to the patricians. Since the ruling body of the Senate was more interested in itself than others, the plebeians suffered. Over time the plebeians were able to amass wealth and great power. By the time of Caesar, the patrician Claudius chose to become a plebeian (something he could do through adoption) in order to hold an important political office, the Tribune of the Plebs.
Freed Slaves
Slaves who had either been given their freedom or had paid for their freedom and now worked for their living.
Slaves
Generally prisoners of war but sometimes abandoned children who were owned by their master
Social Classes in the Late Republic
Rome was a highly hierarchial and class-conscious society, but there was the possibility of mobility between most classes because by the second century BCE class was no longer determined solely by birth. The classes described below superseded the old patrician/plebeian distinction, though certain elements of dress and religious positions and rituals were still reserved for patricians.There was a large gulf between the wealthy upper classes , and the poorer lower classes, though it was still possible—although quite difficult—to move upwards by acquiring sufficient wealth.
Upper Classes
Senatorial class (senatores): The basis for this class was political. It included all men who served in the Senate, and by extension their families. This class was dominated by the nobles (nobiles), families whose ancestors included at leastone consul (earlier the qualification had been a curule magistracy, i.e. curule aedile and up). The first man in his family to be elected consul, thus qualifying his family for noble status, was called a “new man” (novus homo), although
this term was used in varying senses—it could refer to an equesterian who was the first in his family to be elected to political office and thus join the senatorial class, or to a man from the senatorial class who was the first in his family ?
to be elected consul and thus join the nobles, or most dramatically to an equestrian like Cicero who was elected consul. Senators had to prove that they had property worth at least 1,000,000 sesterces; there was no salary attached to service in the Senate, and senators were prohibited from engaging personally in nonagricultural business, trade or public contracts. Men of the senatorial class wore the tunic with broad stripes (laticlavi).
Equestrian class (equites): The basis for this class was economic. A man could be formally enrolled in the equestrian order if he could prove that he possessed a stable minimum amount of wealth (property worth at least 400,000 sesterces); by extension his family members were also considered equestrians. However, if an equestrian was elected to a magistracy and entered the Senate, he moved up to the senatorial class; this was not particularly easy or frequent. Equestrians were primarily involved in the types of business prohibited to senators. Equestrians wore the tunic with narrow stripes
Women: Although membership in these classes was dominated by the same families over many generations, the classes themselves were defined according to male activities rather than birth. Women's place in these classes was therefore somewhat problematic. However, there came to be a customary acceptance that women belonged to the social class of their fathers and then of their husbands, although the women had no special dress that distinguished their status. This female participation in social status began to crystallize and formalize under Augustus, who explicitly included the daughters, granddaughters, and great-granddaughters of senators in his law prohibiting members of the senatorial class from contracting legal marriages with freed people.
Belonging to one of these upper classes had many significant consequences for Romans besides prestige, for social class determined one's economic and political opportunities, as well as legal rights, benefits and penalties. Rome had nothing comparable to our middle class; the gulf between these two upper classes and the much larger lower classes was immense. However, as long as one was a freeborn Roman citizen there was at least a slight possibility of moving into the equestrian class through the acquisition of wealth. Entry into the senatorial class, even for wealthy equestrians, was extremely difficult, since for centuries a small number of elite families had monopolized this class.
Lower Classes
Commons (plebs or vulgus): all other freeborn Roman citizens. The special mark of dress for citizen males was the toga. All Roman citizens had conubium, the right to contract a legal marriage with another Roman citizen and beget legitimate children who were themselves Roman citizens.
Latins (Latini): freeborn residents of Italy (until 89 BCE, when they were all granted full citizenship) and of certain other Roman municipalities who had some legal rights but were not full Roman citizens. Former slaves who had been informally freed by Roman citizens were a special category, “Junian Latins.”
Foreigners (peregrini): all other freeborn men and women who lived in Roman territories. In 212 CE most freeborn people living within the Roman empire were granted Roman citizenship.
Freed people (liberti or libertini): men and women who had been slaves but had bought their freedom or been manumitted. They were not fully free because they had various restrictions on their rights and owed certain duties to their former masters, who now became their patrons, but they could become citizens if their former masters were citizens and they had been formally manumitted; they were not, however, eligible for public office. This was the one class it was not possible to leave, though the class encompassed only one generation. The next generation, their freeborn children, became full citizens ( members of the commons, though there was a social stigma attached to being a freedman's son) and could even become equestrians if rich enough. Freed people had low social status, and most were probably fairly poor, but it was possible for them to achieve some success in a trade, and a few might even become wealthy. They had no special distinction of dress, though their names indicated their status as freed people.
Slaves (servi): system of chattel slavery where human beings were born into slavery or sold into slavery through war or piracy. Slaves were the property of their owners by law, but by custom some slaves (especially urban, domestic slaves) might be allowed their own savings (peculium) with which they might later buy their freedom, or their masters could manumit them, so some mobility into the previous class was possible. . Roman slavery was not racially based, and slaves had no special distinction of dress, though slaves who had run away were sometimes made to wear metal collars with inscriptions such as the following: “I have run away. Capture me. When you have returned me to my master, Zoninus, you will receive a reward.”
Women: Since the lower classes were not defined by male activities, there was no problem with including women; female and male children were automatically members of the social class of their parents (except for freedpeople, since only one generation could be “freed”). If the parents were Roman citizens and had contracted a legal Roman marriage, the children followed the social status of their father ( they were Roman citizens). However, in the case of Latins, foreigners, and slaves, children took the social status of their mother, even if their father was a freeborn Roman citizen.
Tuesday 29 November 2016
The value of money...
The Romans had quite a complicated system of currency with many demoninations that changed over the course of history. For our RP purposes, we will simplify the system to 3 demoninations:
Denari (silver)
Sesterces (bronze)
As (bronze)
Aureus - (gold) - this demonination was exceedingly rare in the time of 80BC - it had only started to enter circulation (in 83BC) and was used to pay armies. Hence if you start spending gold coins in Pompeii it would be the equivalent of using marked bills - questions will be asked and the vigile may come knocking on your door. It was the highest value coin in roman currency at the time, hence I include it for comparison.
1 Aureus = 25 Denarius = 100 Sesterces = 400 Asses
The richest man in this time period was Marcus Licinius Crassus. It was estimated that he was worth around 200 million sesterces - the equivalence of the Treasury of Rome.
M O N T H L Y S A L A R I E S :
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
MILITARY:
Legionary Soldier (Private)………...............................112 denarii
Praetorian (guard in Rome)..........................................320 denarii
Legionary Soldier (Centurion)..................................1600 denarii
Note that soldiers were also given other allotments such as wheat. However they had to pay for their own equipment, clothing and rations and even contribute for funerals for the fallen in their unit.
LABORERS:
Secretary/clerk................................................................160 denarii
Lecturer..…………..............................................................150 denarii
Messenger……….............................................................64 denarii
haruspex (fortune teller) ……………..........................80 denarii
farm laborer, with maintenance.................................106denarii
lime burner, with maintenance...................................160 denarii
drover, with maintenance............................................80 denarii
sewer cleaner, working a full day, with
maintenance...............................................................80 denarii
shepherd, with maintenance......................................80 denarii
water carrier, working a full day, with
maintenance................................................................80 denarii
all other general labor..................................................80 denarii
SKILLED LABORERS:
cabinet maker, with maintenance..............................160 denarii
carpenter, with maintenance……...............................214 denarii
stone mason, with maintenance................................214 denarii
figure painter, with maintenance...............................320 denarii
fuller (Wool weaver),………….......................................320 denarii
marble paving and walls custodian, with
maintenance................................................................160 denarii
wall mosaics worker, with maintenance.................160 denarii
model maker, with maintenance...............................240 denarii
EDUCATION/LEARNED PROFESSIONALS:
Elementary teacher per boy
avg 8-10 pupils.............………………………………....21 denarii
Teacher of arithmetic, per boy
avg 8-10 pupils……………………………….................21 denarii
Teacher of shorthand, per boy
avg 8-10 pupils ………………………………................21 denarii
Teacher of Greek or Latin language/literature,
per pupil /avg 8-10 pupils……...............................54 denarii
Teacher of geometry, per pupil
avg 8-10 pupils……………………………...................54 denarii
Teacher of rhetoric or public speaking,
per pupil/avg 8-10 pupils........................................22 denarii
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
COST OF GOODS AND SERVICES
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Quick Reference:
A loaf of bread……....................................................................66 sesterces
A bath at a public bath.................……...............................33 sesterces
A tunika (clothing)......................................…….................22 denarii
Everyday cloak…………….................................60 to 160 denarii
2 sparrows….....................................……..............................33 sesterces
Bi-Weekly cost of gladiator sponsorship
approx. (novice)…………….........................36 to 187 denarii
Bi-Weekly cost of gladiator sponsorship
approx. (veteran)…….…...........................213 to 346 denarii
Bi-Weekly cost of gladiator sponsorship
approx. (champion)….…........................373 to 533 denarii
Earnings from a winning gladiator
(novice)……………………….….........................320-533 denarii
Earnings from a winning gladiator
(veteran)……….....................………………….800-2667 denarii
Earnings from a winning gladiator
(champion)………………………......................…..5300+ denarii
Temple Offerings;
Basket of Fruits & Grains………........................................30 sesterces
2 Sparrows…..........................................................................30 sesterces
2 Doves…..............................................................................2 denarii
2 Pigeons….............................................................................1 denarii
Goat ………………...............................................................130 denarii
Calf ………............................................................................88 denarii
Bull ………………...............................................................533 denarii
Monthly Domestic upkeep
(the cost of food, rent, water, wine, clothing, slaves, etc)
A small one room house in the city……...................160 denarii
A small two room house in the city..………...............266 denarii
An urban villa...........…………………..............................533 denarii
A pastoral villa................................................................800 denarii
Cost to purchase:
ANIMALS & SLAVES
1 donkey……………........................................................667 denarii
1 cow…...................................................................533-1067 denarii
1 farm slave (male) …………...................................27-270 denarii
1.common slave (child)...........…….......................27-1067 denarii
1 common slave (female)......…….....................53-1067 denarii
1 common slave (male)......................................53-533 denarii
1 special slave (gladiator, guard)...................270-533 denarii
1 special slave (female, pretty or
trained in special skills)……….................2700-10680 denarii
1 skilled slave (carpenter, accountant,
scribe, blacksmith etc)…............................533-2700 denarii
1 Greek tutor slave.......................................5400-27000 denarii
LAND
1 acre land = 5333 denarii
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
BREAD FLOUR
(pricing based on a month’s supply of flour for a family of 4)
A months worth of Wheat..............................................42 denarii
A months worth of Barley……………..............................31 denarii
A months worth of Rye......................................................31 denarii
A months worth of Millet,...............................................42 denarii
A months worth of Panic...................................................31 denarii
A months worth of Spelt,...............................................42 denarii
Subsidies were issues by the government to supply bread flour to the people or else many would have starved to death. Not everyone could afford to eat bread. If there were no public ovens available for baking, people would make a simple porrige out of wheat flour - similar to polenta.
VEGETABLES, BEANS & GRAIN
(pricing based on a month’s supply of flour for a household of 4)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Beans, crushed...................................................................10 denarii
Beans......................................................................................5 denarii
Lentils......................................................................................10 denarii
Pulse........................................................................................10 denarii
Peas, split..............................................................................10 denarii
Peas, not split.......................................................................5 denarii
Rice, cleaned........................................................................21 denarii
Barley grits, cleaned.........................................................10 denarii
Spelt grits, cleaned...........................................................21 denarii
Sesame..................................................................................21 denarii
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
WINES
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Picene, dinner serving......................................................5 denarii
Picene, amphora.................................................................21 denarii
Tiburtine dinner serving..................................................5 denarii
Tiburtine amphora..............................................................21 denarii
Sabine dinner serving......................................................7 denarii
Sabine amphora..................................................................27 denarii
Falernian dinner serving...................................................10 denarii
Falernian amphora............................................................43 denarii
Aged wine, dinner serving................................................3 denarii
Aged wine, amphora.........................................................10 denarii
Ordinary wine dinner serving..........................................1 denarii
Ordinary wine amphora...................................................5 denarii
Beer, Gallic or Pannonian dinner serving..................... 50 sesterces
Beer, Egyptian dinner serving.........................................30 sesterces
OILS & SEASONINGS
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
From unripe olives 1 bottle...............................................3 denarii
Second quality 1 bottle......................................................2 denarii
Salt 1 month’s supply........................................................10 denarii
Spiced salt 1 month’s supply...........................................1 denarii
Honey, best quality 1 bottle...........................................5 denarii
Honey, second quality 1 bottle.......................................3 denarii
Liquamen primum, 1 bottle ........................................ 5 denarii
Liquamen secundum, 1 bottle ..................................... 4 denarii
MEAT
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Pork 1 pound........................................................................2 denarii
Beef 1 pound.......................................................................2 denarii
Leg of pork, Menapic or Cerritane,
best 1 pound ……………………....................................3 denarii
Pork mincemeat 1 ounce...................................................60 sesterces
Beef mincemeat 1 pound..................................................60 sesterces
Pheasant, fattened..............................................................9 denarii
Pheasant, wild.......................................................................2 denarii
Chickens 1 brace................................................................2 denarii
Venison 1 pound.................................................................2 denarii
Butter 1 pound.......................................................................2 denarii
FISH
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sea fish with rough scales 1 Italian pound..................2 denarii
Fish, second quality 1 Italian pound...............................2 denarii
River fish, best quality 1 Italian pound..........................1 denarii
River fish, second quality 1 Italian pound....................1 denarii
Salt fish 1 Italian pound.......................................................60 sesterces
8 dozen Oysters.................................................................10 denarii
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Reference:
http://ancientcoinsforeducation.org/content/view/79/98/
Denari (silver)
Sesterces (bronze)
As (bronze)
Aureus - (gold) - this demonination was exceedingly rare in the time of 80BC - it had only started to enter circulation (in 83BC) and was used to pay armies. Hence if you start spending gold coins in Pompeii it would be the equivalent of using marked bills - questions will be asked and the vigile may come knocking on your door. It was the highest value coin in roman currency at the time, hence I include it for comparison.
1 Aureus = 25 Denarius = 100 Sesterces = 400 Asses
The richest man in this time period was Marcus Licinius Crassus. It was estimated that he was worth around 200 million sesterces - the equivalence of the Treasury of Rome.
From Wikipedia:
The census divided citizens into six complex classes based on property. The richest were the senatorial class, who during the Late Republic had to be worth at least 400,000 sestertii, the same as the equites; when Augustus reformed the senate during the first years of the Principate, he raised the property requirement to 1,000,000 sestertii.[7] The wealth of the senatorial class was based on ownership of large agricultural estates, and by custom members did not engage in commercial activity.
Below the senatores in rank, but above others were the equites ("equestrians" or "knights"), with 400,000 sestertii, who could engage in commerce and formed an influential business class. Certain political and quasi-political positions were filled by equites, including tax farming and, under the Principate, leadership of the Praetorian Guard. Below the equites were three more classes of property-owning citizens; and lastly the proletarii, whose property was valued below 11,000 asses.
The following price lists have been modified from Diocletian's "Edict of Maximum Prices" issued in 301 AD to curb inflation. As Legionaries were paid 320 denarii a month in 300AD and around 112 denarii a month before reforms by Caesar, I did a rudimentary adjustment for inflation (i.e: divided it all by 3). There is no accurate reference to compare the value of roman coins to modern day currency - as the coinage changed in intrinsic value (i.e: deteriorated) over the years. (Also different websites quote different figures!!) So please bear this in mind when you use these values for guidance and comparison.
M O N T H L Y S A L A R I E S :
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
MILITARY:
Legionary Soldier (Private)………...............................112 denarii
Praetorian (guard in Rome)..........................................320 denarii
Legionary Soldier (Centurion)..................................1600 denarii
Note that soldiers were also given other allotments such as wheat. However they had to pay for their own equipment, clothing and rations and even contribute for funerals for the fallen in their unit.
LABORERS:
Secretary/clerk................................................................160 denarii
Lecturer..…………..............................................................150 denarii
Messenger……….............................................................64 denarii
haruspex (fortune teller) ……………..........................80 denarii
farm laborer, with maintenance.................................106denarii
lime burner, with maintenance...................................160 denarii
drover, with maintenance............................................80 denarii
sewer cleaner, working a full day, with
maintenance...............................................................80 denarii
shepherd, with maintenance......................................80 denarii
water carrier, working a full day, with
maintenance................................................................80 denarii
all other general labor..................................................80 denarii
SKILLED LABORERS:
cabinet maker, with maintenance..............................160 denarii
carpenter, with maintenance……...............................214 denarii
stone mason, with maintenance................................214 denarii
figure painter, with maintenance...............................320 denarii
fuller (Wool weaver),………….......................................320 denarii
marble paving and walls custodian, with
maintenance................................................................160 denarii
wall mosaics worker, with maintenance.................160 denarii
model maker, with maintenance...............................240 denarii
EDUCATION/LEARNED PROFESSIONALS:
Elementary teacher per boy
avg 8-10 pupils.............………………………………....21 denarii
Teacher of arithmetic, per boy
avg 8-10 pupils……………………………….................21 denarii
Teacher of shorthand, per boy
avg 8-10 pupils ………………………………................21 denarii
Teacher of Greek or Latin language/literature,
per pupil /avg 8-10 pupils……...............................54 denarii
Teacher of geometry, per pupil
avg 8-10 pupils……………………………...................54 denarii
Teacher of rhetoric or public speaking,
per pupil/avg 8-10 pupils........................................22 denarii
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
COST OF GOODS AND SERVICES
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Quick Reference:
A loaf of bread……....................................................................66 sesterces
A bath at a public bath.................……...............................33 sesterces
A tunika (clothing)......................................…….................22 denarii
Everyday cloak…………….................................60 to 160 denarii
2 sparrows….....................................……..............................33 sesterces
Bi-Weekly cost of gladiator sponsorship
approx. (novice)…………….........................36 to 187 denarii
Bi-Weekly cost of gladiator sponsorship
approx. (veteran)…….…...........................213 to 346 denarii
Bi-Weekly cost of gladiator sponsorship
approx. (champion)….…........................373 to 533 denarii
Earnings from a winning gladiator
(novice)……………………….….........................320-533 denarii
Earnings from a winning gladiator
(veteran)……….....................………………….800-2667 denarii
Earnings from a winning gladiator
(champion)………………………......................…..5300+ denarii
Temple Offerings;
Basket of Fruits & Grains………........................................30 sesterces
2 Sparrows…..........................................................................30 sesterces
2 Doves…..............................................................................2 denarii
2 Pigeons….............................................................................1 denarii
Goat ………………...............................................................130 denarii
Calf ………............................................................................88 denarii
Bull ………………...............................................................533 denarii
Monthly Domestic upkeep
(the cost of food, rent, water, wine, clothing, slaves, etc)
A small one room house in the city……...................160 denarii
A small two room house in the city..………...............266 denarii
An urban villa...........…………………..............................533 denarii
A pastoral villa................................................................800 denarii
Cost to purchase:
ANIMALS & SLAVES
1 donkey……………........................................................667 denarii
1 cow…...................................................................533-1067 denarii
1 farm slave (male) …………...................................27-270 denarii
1.common slave (child)...........…….......................27-1067 denarii
1 common slave (female)......…….....................53-1067 denarii
1 common slave (male)......................................53-533 denarii
1 special slave (gladiator, guard)...................270-533 denarii
1 special slave (female, pretty or
trained in special skills)……….................2700-10680 denarii
1 skilled slave (carpenter, accountant,
scribe, blacksmith etc)…............................533-2700 denarii
1 Greek tutor slave.......................................5400-27000 denarii
LAND
1 acre land = 5333 denarii
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
BREAD FLOUR
(pricing based on a month’s supply of flour for a family of 4)
A months worth of Wheat..............................................42 denarii
A months worth of Barley……………..............................31 denarii
A months worth of Rye......................................................31 denarii
A months worth of Millet,...............................................42 denarii
A months worth of Panic...................................................31 denarii
A months worth of Spelt,...............................................42 denarii
Subsidies were issues by the government to supply bread flour to the people or else many would have starved to death. Not everyone could afford to eat bread. If there were no public ovens available for baking, people would make a simple porrige out of wheat flour - similar to polenta.
VEGETABLES, BEANS & GRAIN
(pricing based on a month’s supply of flour for a household of 4)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Beans, crushed...................................................................10 denarii
Beans......................................................................................5 denarii
Lentils......................................................................................10 denarii
Pulse........................................................................................10 denarii
Peas, split..............................................................................10 denarii
Peas, not split.......................................................................5 denarii
Rice, cleaned........................................................................21 denarii
Barley grits, cleaned.........................................................10 denarii
Spelt grits, cleaned...........................................................21 denarii
Sesame..................................................................................21 denarii
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
WINES
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Picene, dinner serving......................................................5 denarii
Picene, amphora.................................................................21 denarii
Tiburtine dinner serving..................................................5 denarii
Tiburtine amphora..............................................................21 denarii
Sabine dinner serving......................................................7 denarii
Sabine amphora..................................................................27 denarii
Falernian dinner serving...................................................10 denarii
Falernian amphora............................................................43 denarii
Aged wine, dinner serving................................................3 denarii
Aged wine, amphora.........................................................10 denarii
Ordinary wine dinner serving..........................................1 denarii
Ordinary wine amphora...................................................5 denarii
Beer, Gallic or Pannonian dinner serving..................... 50 sesterces
Beer, Egyptian dinner serving.........................................30 sesterces
OILS & SEASONINGS
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
From unripe olives 1 bottle...............................................3 denarii
Second quality 1 bottle......................................................2 denarii
Salt 1 month’s supply........................................................10 denarii
Spiced salt 1 month’s supply...........................................1 denarii
Honey, best quality 1 bottle...........................................5 denarii
Honey, second quality 1 bottle.......................................3 denarii
Liquamen primum, 1 bottle ........................................ 5 denarii
Liquamen secundum, 1 bottle ..................................... 4 denarii
MEAT
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Pork 1 pound........................................................................2 denarii
Beef 1 pound.......................................................................2 denarii
Leg of pork, Menapic or Cerritane,
best 1 pound ……………………....................................3 denarii
Pork mincemeat 1 ounce...................................................60 sesterces
Beef mincemeat 1 pound..................................................60 sesterces
Pheasant, fattened..............................................................9 denarii
Pheasant, wild.......................................................................2 denarii
Chickens 1 brace................................................................2 denarii
Venison 1 pound.................................................................2 denarii
Butter 1 pound.......................................................................2 denarii
FISH
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sea fish with rough scales 1 Italian pound..................2 denarii
Fish, second quality 1 Italian pound...............................2 denarii
River fish, best quality 1 Italian pound..........................1 denarii
River fish, second quality 1 Italian pound....................1 denarii
Salt fish 1 Italian pound.......................................................60 sesterces
8 dozen Oysters.................................................................10 denarii
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Reference:
http://ancientcoinsforeducation.org/content/view/79/98/
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)